"औषधि एवं स्वास्थ्य प्रौद्योगिकी का इतिहास" (अनुभाग) सम्पादित करें

== मध्यकाल ==

* 750 - [[माधव]] ने [[निदान]] नामक आयुर्वेदिक ग्रन्थ की रचना की जिसमें उन्होने रोगों का उनके कारण, लक्षण एवं जटिलताओं सहित सूची दी है।
* c. 800-873 - [[Al-Kindi]] (Alkindus) introduces [[quantification]] into medicine with his ''[[De Gradibus]]''
* c. 830-870 - [[Hunayn ibn Ishaq]] translates Galen's works into Arabic

* c. 838-870 - [[Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari]], a pioneer of pediatrics and the field of child development, writes the first [[encyclopedia]] of medicine.<ref>Amber Haque (2004), "Psychology from Islamic Perspective: Contributions of Early Muslim Scholars and Challenges to Contemporary Muslim Psychologists", ''Journal of Religion and Health'' '''43''' (4): 357-377 [361]</ref>

* c. 865-925 - [[Rhazes]] pioneers [[pediatrics]],<ref name=Tschanz>David W. Tschanz, PhD (2003), "Arab Roots of European Medicine", ''Heart Views'' '''4''' (2).</ref> and makes the first clear distinction between [[smallpox]] and [[measles]] in his ''al-Hawi''. He also writes the ''Doubts about Galen'', where he refutes Galen's theory of [[humorism]] using an [[experiment]].

* 1000 - [[Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi|Abulcasis]] establishes [[surgery]] as a profession of in his ''Kitab [[al-Tasrif]]'', which remains a standard textbook in Muslim and European [[University|universities]] until the 16th century. The book first introduced the [[plaster]],<ref>Zafarul-Islam Khan, [http://milligazette.com/Archives/15-1-2000/Art5.htm At The Threshhold Of A New Millennium – II] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170324064542/http://www.milligazette.com/Archives/15-1-2000/Art5.htm |date=24 मार्च 2017 }}, ''The Milli Gazette''.</ref> [[inhalant]] [[anesthesia]], and many [[surgical instruments]], including the first instruments unique to women,<ref name=Saad>Bashar Saad, Hassan Azaizeh, Omar Said (October 2005). "Tradition and Perspectives of Arab Herbal Medicine: A Review", ''Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine'' '''2''' (4), p. 475-479 [476]. [[Oxford University Press]].</ref> as well as the surgical uses of [[catgut]] and [[forceps]], the [[Ligature (medicine)|ligature]], [[surgical needle]], [[scalpel]], [[curette]], [[retractor]], surgical [[spoon]], [[Sound (medical instrument)|sound]], surgical [[hook]], surgical [[rod]], [[Speculum (medical)|specula]],<ref>Khaled al-Hadidi (1978), "The Role of Muslim Scholars in Oto-rhino-Laryngology", ''The Egyptian Journal of O.R.L.'' '''4''' (1), p. 1-15. ([[cf.]] [http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=674 Ear, Nose and Throat Medical Practice in Muslim Heritage] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111001101604/http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=674 |date=1 अक्तूबर 2011 }}, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilization.)</ref> and [[bone]] [[saw]].<ref name=Vallely>Paul Vallely, [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4158/is_20060311/ai_n16147544 How Islamic Inventors Changed the World] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151229022012/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4158/is_20060311/ai_n16147544 |date=29 दिसंबर 2015 }}, ''[[The Independent]]'', 11 मार्च 2006.</ref>

* 1021 - [[Ibn al-Haytham|Alhazen]] completes his ''[[Book of Optics]]'', which made important advances in [[Ophthalmology in medieval Islam|ophthalmology]] and [[eye surgery]], as it correctly explained the process of [[visual perception]] for the first time.<ref name=Saad/>

* c. 1030 - [[Avicenna]] writes ''[[The Book of Healing]]'' and ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'', in which he establishes [[experimental medicine]] and [[evidence-based medicine]]. The ''Canon'' remains a standard textbook in Muslim and European [[University|universities]] until the 18th century. The book's contributions to medicine includes the introduction of [[clinical trial]]s, systematic [[experiment]]ation and [[quantification]] in medicine and [[physiology]],<ref>Katharine Park (March 1990). "''Avicenna in Renaissance Italy: The Canon and Medical Teaching in Italian Universities after 1500'' by Nancy G. Siraisi", ''The Journal of Modern History'' '''62''' (1), p. 169-170.</ref> the discovery of [[Infectious disease|contagious diseases]], the distinction of [[mediastinitis]] from [[pleurisy]], the contagious nature of [[phthisis]], the distribution of [[disease]]s by [[water]] and [[soil]], and the first careful descriptions of [[skin]] troubles, [[sexually transmitted disease]]s, [[perversion]]s, and [[Anxiety|nervous ailments]],<ref name=Sarton>{{citation|first=George|last=Sarton|author-link=George Sarton|title=Introduction to the History of Science|year=1927-31|url=http://www.cyberistan.org/islamic/Introl1.html#sarton2|accessdate=2008-01-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080203140704/http://www.cyberistan.org/islamic/Introl1.html#sarton2|archive-date=3 फ़रवरी 2008|url-status=dead}}</ref> as well the use of [[ice]] to treat [[fever]]s, and the separation of [[medicine]] from [[pharmacology]], which was important to the development of the [[pharmaceutical sciences]].<ref name=Saad/>

* 1100-1161 - [[Ibn Zuhr|Avenzoar]] invents the surgical procedure of [[tracheotomy]] in [[al-Andalus]].<ref>A. I. Makki. "Needles & Pins", ''AlShindagah'' '''68''', January-February 2006.</ref> He is also the first physician known to have carried out human [[dissection]]s and postmortem [[autopsy]], and proves that the [[List of skin diseases|skin disease]] [[scabies]] is caused by a [[parasite]], which contradicted the erroneous theory of [[humorism]].<ref>[http://encyclopedia.farlex.com/Islamic+medicine Islamic medicine] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120208031923/http://encyclopedia.farlex.com/Islamic+medicine |date=8 फ़रवरी 2012 }}, ''[[Hutchinson Encyclopedia]]''.</ref> He was also the first to provide a real scientific [[etiology]] for the [[Inflammation|inflammatory diseases]] of the [[ear]], and the first to clearly discuss the causes of [[stridor]].<ref>Prof. Dr. Mostafa Shehata, "The Ear, Nose and Throat in Islamic Medicine", ''Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine'', 2003 (1): 2-5 [4].</ref> Modern [[anesthesia]] was also developed in [[al-Andalus]] by the Muslim [[anesthesiologist]]s Ibn Zuhr and [[Abulcasis]]. They were the first to utilize oral as well as [[Inhalational anaesthetic|inhalant anesthetics]], and they performed hundreds of surgeries under [[inhalant]] anesthesia with the use of [[narcotic]]-soaked [[sponge]]s which were placed over the face.<ref name=Ajram>Dr. Kasem Ajram (1992). ''Miracle of Islamic Science'', Appendix B. Knowledge House Publishers. ISBN 0-911119-43-4.</ref>

* 1242 - [[Ibn Nafis|Ibn an-Nafis]] suggests that the right and left [[ventricle (heart)|ventricles]] of the [[heart]] are separate and discovers the [[pulmonary circulation]] (the cycle involving the [[Ventricle (heart)|ventricles]] of the [[heart]] and the [[lungs]]) and [[coronary circulation]],<ref>Husain F. Nagamia (2003), "Ibn al-Nafīs: A Biographical Sketch of the Discoverer of Pulmonary and Coronary Circulation", ''Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine'' '''1''', p. 22–28.</ref> for which he is considered the pioneer of [[Circulatory system|circulation theory]]<ref>Chairman's Reflections (2004), "Traditional Medicine Among Gulf Arabs, Part II: Blood-letting", ''Heart Views'' '''5''' (2), p. 74-85 [80].</ref> and one of the greatest [[physiologists]].<ref>[[George Sarton]] ([[cf.]] Dr. Paul Ghalioungui (1982), "The West denies Ibn Al Nafis's contribution to the discovery of the circulation", ''Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis'', Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait) <br /> ([[cf.]] [http://www.islamset.com/isc/nafis/drpaul.html The West denies Ibn Al Nafis's contribution to the discovery of the circulation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090825102842/http://www.islamset.com/isc/nafis/drpaul.html |date=25 अगस्त 2009 }}, ''Encyclopedia of Islamic World'')</ref> He emphasized the rigours of verification by [[measurement]], [[observation]] and [[experiment]], and was an early proponent of [[experimental medicine]], postmortem [[autopsy]], and human [[dissection]].<ref>Ingrid Hehmeyer and Aliya Khan (2007), "Islam's forgotten contributions to medical science", ''Canadian Medical Association Journal'' '''176''' (10), p. 1467-1468 [1467].</ref> He also discredited many other erroneous [[Avicenna|Avicennian]] and [[Galen]]ic doctrines on the [[humorism|four humours]], [[pulse]] [[bone]]s, [[muscle]]s, [[intestine]]s, [[Sensory system|sensory organs]], [[Bile|bilious]] [[Canal (anatomy)|canals]], [[esophagus]], [[stomach]], and the [[anatomy]] of other parts of the [[human body]].<ref>Dr. Sulaiman Oataya (1982), "Ibn ul Nafis has dissected the human body", ''Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis'', Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait ([[cf.]] [http://www.islamset.com/isc/nafis/index.html Ibn ul-Nafis has Dissected the Human Body] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091023065405/http://www.islamset.com/isc/nafis/index.html |date=23 अक्तूबर 2009 }}, ''Encyclopedia of Islamic World'').</ref> Ibn al-Nafis also drew [[diagram]]s to illustrate different body parts in his new physiological system.<ref>Dr Ibrahim Shaikh (2001), [http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=209 Who Discovered Pulmonary Circulation, Ibn Al-Nafis or Harvey?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100104073753/http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=209 |date=4 जनवरी 2010 }}, FSTC.</ref>

* c. 1248 - [[Ibn al-Baitar]] wrote on [[botany]] and [[pharmacy]], studied animal anatomy and medicine, and was a pioneer of [[veterinary medicine]].

* 1249 - [[Roger Bacon]] writes about [[Lens (optics)#Types of lenses|convex lens]] [[spectacles]] for treating [[long-sightedness]]

* 1300s - When the [[Black Death]] [[bubonic plague]] reached [[al-Andalus]], [[Islamic medicine|Ibn Khatima]] hypothesized that infectious diseases are caused by [[microorganism]]s which enter the human body.<ref name=Syed>Ibrahim B. Syed PhD, "Islamic Medicine: 1000 years ahead of its times", ''Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine'', 2002 (2): 2-9.</ref>

* 1313-1374 - [[Islamic medicine|Ibn Khatima]] wrote a treatise called ''On the Plague'', in which he establishes the existence of contagion through "experience, investigation, the evidence of the senses and trustworthy reports." He also discovers that "transmission is affected through garments, vessels and earrings."<ref name=Syed/>

* 1403 - [[lens (optics)|concave lens]] spectacles to treat [[myopia]]
* early 16th century: [[Paracelsus]], an [[alchemy|alchemist]] by trade, rejects [[occultism]] and pioneers the use of chemicals and minerals in medicine