तापमान

अंगूठाकार बनाने में त्रुटि हुई: फ़ाइल गायब है

विश्व के विभिन्न भागों का वार्षिक माध्य तापमान

मानव शरीर के तापमान का विचरण

आदर्श गैस के तापमान का सैद्धान्तिक आधार अणुगति सिद्धान्त से मिलता है।

तापमान किसी वस्तु की उष्णता की माप है। अर्थात्, तापमान से यह पता चलता है कि कोई वस्तु ठंढी है या गर्म।

उदाहरणार्थ, यदि किसी एक वस्तु का तापमान 20 डिग्री है और एक दूसरी वस्तु का 40 डिग्री, तो यह कहा जा सकता है कि दूसरी वस्तु प्रथम वस्तु की अपेक्षा गर्म है।

एक अन्य उदाहरण - यदि बंगलौर में, 4 अगस्त 2006 का औसत तापमान 29 डिग्री था और 5 अगस्त का तापमान 32 डिग्री; तो बंगलौर, 5 अगस्त 2006 को, 4 अगस्त 2006 की अपेक्षा अधिक गर्म था।

गैसों के अणुगति सिद्धान्त के विकास के आधार पर यह माना जाता है कि किसी वस्तु का ताप उसके सूक्ष्म कणों (इलेक्ट्रॉन, परमाणु तथा अणु) के यादृच्छ गति (रैण्डम मोशन) में निहित औसत गतिज ऊर्जा के समानुपाती होता है।

तापमान अत्यन्त महत्वपूर्ण भौतिक राशि है। प्राकृतिक विज्ञान के सभी महत्वपूर्ण क्षेत्रों (भौतिकी, रसायन, चिकित्सा, जीवविज्ञान, भूविज्ञान आदि) में इसका महत्व दृष्टिगोचर होता है। इसके अलावा दैनिक जीवन के सभी पहलुओं पर तापमान का महत्व है।

पैमाना[सम्पादित करें | स्रोत सम्पादित करें]

उपरोक्त उदाहरणों में तापमान को डिग्री में निरूपित किया गया है, जो कि वास्तव में कई पैमानों पर मापा जाता है - सेल्सियस, केल्विन, रोमर, फॉरेन्हाइट इत्यादि।

सेल्सियस[सम्पादित करें | स्रोत सम्पादित करें]

मुख्य लेख देखें - सेल्सियस

इसे सेन्टीग्रेड पैमाना भी कहते हैं। इस पैमाने के अनुसार पानी, सामान्य दबाव पर 0 डिग्री सेल्सियस पर जमता है और 100 डिग्री सेल्सियस पर उबलता है। यह पैमाना दैनिक वातावरणीय तथा अन्य कामों में काफी प्रयुक्त होता है।

केल्विन[सम्पादित करें | स्रोत सम्पादित करें]

मुख्य लेख देखें - केल्विन

इस पैमाने के अनुसार पानी, सामान्य दबाव पर 273.15 डिग्री केल्विन पर जमता है और 373.15 डिग्री केल्विन पर उबलता है। यह पैमाना वैज्ञानिक गणनाओं तथा अन्य कामों में काफी प्रयुक्त होता है।

फॉरेन्हाइट[सम्पादित करें | स्रोत सम्पादित करें]

मुख्य लेख देखें - फॉरेन्हाइट

इस पैमाने के अनुसार पानी, सामान्य दबाव पर 32 डिग्री फॉरेन्हाइट पर जमता है और 212 डिग्री फॉरेन्हाइट पर उबलता है। परम्परागत बुखार मापने के लिये प्रयुक्त थर्मॉमीटर में इसी पैमाने का प्रयोग होता है। यदि किसी व्यक्ति के शरीर का तापमान 98.4 डिग्री से ज्यादा हो जाता है तो वह ज्वर पीड़ित होता है। यह पैमाना दैनिक वातावरणीय तथा अन्य कामों में प्रयुक्त होता है।

रोमर[सम्पादित करें | स्रोत सम्पादित करें]

मुख्य लेख देखें - रोमर

इस पैमाने के अनुसार पानी, सामान्य दबाव पर 0 डिग्री रोमर पर जमता है और 80 डिग्री रोमर पर उबलता है। यह पैमाना अपेक्षाकृत कम प्रयुक्त होता है।

आपसी संबंध[सम्पादित करें | स्रोत सम्पादित करें]

यदि किसा एक ही वस्तु का तापमान, फॉरेन्हाइट पैमाने पर F हो, सेल्सियस पैमाने पर C, केल्विन पैमाने पर K और रोमर पैमाने पर R हो, तो इन पैमानों में इस तरह का संबंध होता है -

सेल्सियस और फॉरेन्हाइट[सम्पादित करें | स्रोत सम्पादित करें]

C/5 = (F-32)/9 c/5 = (f-32)/9

सेल्सियस और केल्विन[सम्पादित करें | स्रोत सम्पादित करें]

C/5 = K-273/5

सेल्सियस और रोमर[सम्पादित करें | स्रोत सम्पादित करें]

C/5 = R/4

	केल्विन	डिग्री सेल्सियस	डिग्री फॉरेनहाइट	रंकाइन	डिग्री र्यूमर	डिग्री रोमर	डिग्री न्यूटन	डिग्री डेलिस्ले
केल्विन	$K = K$	$K = C + 273, 15$	$K = (F + 459, 67)$ $\frac{5}{9}$	$K = R a$ $\frac{5}{9}$	K = Re $\frac{5}{4}$ + 273,15	K = (Ro - 7,5) $\frac{40}{21}$ + 273,15	K = N $\frac{100}{33}$ + 273,15	K = 373,15 - De $\frac{2}{3}$
डिग्री सेल्सियस	$C = K - 273, 15$	$C = C$	C = (F - 32) $\frac{5}{9}$	C = (Ra - 491,67) $\frac{5}{9}$	C = Re $\frac{5}{4}$	C = (Ro - 7,5) $\frac{40}{21}$	C = N $\frac{100}{33}$	C = 100 - De $\frac{2}{3}$
डिग्री फॉरेनहाइट	$F = K$ $\frac{9}{5}$ - 459,67	F = C $\frac{9}{5}$ + 32	$F = F$	$F = R a - 459, 67$	F = Re $\frac{9}{4}$ + 32	F = (Ro - 7,5) $\frac{24}{7}$ + 32	F = N $\frac{60}{11}$ + 32	F = 121 - De $\frac{6}{5}$
रैंकाइन	$R a = K$ $\frac{9}{5}$	Ra = (C + 273,15) $\frac{9}{5}$	$R a = F + 459, 67$	$R a = R a$	Ra = Re $\frac{9}{4}$ + 491,67	Ra = (Ro - 7,5) $\frac{24}{7}$ + 491,67	Ra = N $\frac{60}{11}$ + 491,67	Ra = 171,67 - De $\frac{6}{5}$
डिग्री र्यूमर	$R e = (K - 273, 15)$ $\frac{4}{5}$	Re = C $\frac{4}{5}$	Re = (F - 32) $\frac{4}{9}$	Re = (Ra - 491,67) $\frac{4}{9}$	$R e = R e$	Re = (Ro - 7,5) $\frac{32}{21}$	Re = N $\frac{80}{33}$	Re = 80 - De $\frac{5}{6}$
डिग्री रोमर	Ro =(K - 273,15) $\frac{21}{40}$ +7,5	Ro = C $\frac{21}{40}$ +7,5	Ro = (F - 32) $\frac{7}{24}$ +7,5	Ro = Ra - 491,67 $\frac{7}{24}$ +7,5	Ro = Re $\frac{21}{32}$ +7,5	$R o = R o$	Ro = N $\frac{35}{22}$ +7,5	Ro = 60 - De $\frac{7}{20}$
डिग्री न्यूटन	N = (K - 273,15) $\frac{33}{100}$	N = C $\frac{33}{100}$	N = (F - 32) $\frac{11}{60}$	N = (Ra - 491,67) $\frac{11}{60}$	N = Re $\frac{33}{80}$	N = (Ro - 7,5) $\frac{22}{35}$	$N = N$	N = 33 - De $\frac{11}{50}$
डिग्री डेलिस्ले	De = (373,15 - K) $\frac{3}{2}$	De = (100 - C) $\frac{3}{2}$	De = (121 - F) $\frac{5}{6}$	De = (580,67 - Ra) $\frac{5}{6}$	De = (80 - Re) $\frac{6}{5}$	De = (60 - Ro) $\frac{20}{7}$	De = (33 - N) $\frac{50}{11}$	$D e = D e$

उपरोक्त सारणी को निम्नलिखित सरल सूत्र के रूप में भी दिया जा सकता है-

\frac{^{\circ} C}{5} = \frac{^{\circ} F - 32}{9} = \frac{R - 491.67}{9} = \frac{K - 273.15}{5}

कुछ महत्वपूर्ण तापमान[सम्पादित करें | स्रोत सम्पादित करें]

	तापमान		कृष्णिका विकिरण का शिखर उत्सर्जकता तरंगदैर्घ्य^[१]
	केल्विन	सेल्सियस	कृष्णिका विकिरण का शिखर उत्सर्जकता तरंगदैर्घ्य^[१]
परम शून्य (परिभाषा के अनुसार)	0 K	−273.15 °C	cannot be defined
अब तक प्राप्त सबसे ठण्डा तापमान^[२]	100 pK	साँचा:Gaps °C	29,000 km
Coldest बोस-आइन्सटाइन कन्डेन्सेट^[३]	450 pK	साँचा:Gaps °C	6,400 km
१ मिलीकेल्विन (precisely by definition)	0.001 K	−273.149 °C	साँचा:Gaps m (radio, FM band)^[४]
Cosmic microwave background (2013 measurement)	2.7260 K	−270.424 °C	0.00106301 m (millimeter-wavelength microwave)
Water triple point (precisely by definition)	273.16 K	0.01 °C	10,608.3 nm (long-wavelength IR)
Water boiling point साँचा:Ref label	373.1339 K	99.9839 °C	7,766.03 nm (mid-wavelength IR)
Incandescent lamp साँचा:Ref label	2500 K	≈2,200 °C	1,160 nm (near infrared)साँचा:Ref label
Sun's visible surfaceसाँचा:Ref label^[५]	5,778 K	5,505 °C	501.5 nm (green-blue light)
Lightning bolt channelसाँचा:Ref label	28 kK	28,000 °C	100 nm (far ultraviolet light)
Sun's core साँचा:Ref label	16 MK	16 million °C	0.18 nm (X-rays)
Thermonuclear weapon (peak temperature)साँचा:Ref label^[६]	350 MK	350 million °C	8.3×10⁻³ nm (gamma rays)
Sandia National Labs' Z machine साँचा:Ref label^[७]	2 GK	2 billion °C	1.4×10⁻³ nm (gamma rays)साँचा:Ref label
Core of a high-mass star on its last day साँचा:Ref label^[८]	3 GK	3 billion °C	1×10⁻³ nm (gamma rays)
Merging binary neutron star systemसाँचा:Ref label^[९]	350 GK	350 billion °C	8×10⁻⁶ nm (gamma rays)
Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider साँचा:Ref label^[१०]	1 TK	1 trillion °C	3×10⁻⁶ nm (gamma rays)
CERN's proton vs nucleus collisionsसाँचा:Ref label^[११]	10 TK	10 trillion °C	3×10⁻⁷ nm (gamma rays)
Universe 5.391×10⁻⁴⁴ s after the Big Bang साँचा:Ref label	1.417×10³² K	1.417×10³² °C	1.616×10⁻²⁷ nm (Planck length)^[१२]

साँचा:Plainlist

सन्दर्भ[सम्पादित करें | स्रोत सम्पादित करें]

इन्हें भी देखें[सम्पादित करें | स्रोत सम्पादित करें]

↑ The cited emission wavelengths are for black bodies in equilibrium. CODATA 2006 recommended value of साँचा:Val used for Wien displacement law constant b.
↑ "World record in low temperatures".[१]
↑ A temperature of 450 ±80 pK in a Bose–Einstein condensate (BEC) of sodium atoms was achieved in 2003 by researchers at MIT. Citation: Cooling Bose–Einstein Condensates Below 500 Picokelvin, A. E. Leanhardt et al., Science 301, 12 Sept. 2003, p. 1515. It's noteworthy that this record's peak emittance black-body wavelength of 6,400 kilometers is roughly the radius of Earth.
↑ The peak emittance wavelength of साँचा:Gaps m is a frequency of 103.456 MHz
↑ Measurement was made in 2002 and has an uncertainty of ±3 kelvin. A 1989 measurement Archived 11 फ़रवरी 2010 at Web Archive produced a value of 5,777.0±2.5 K. Citation: Overview of the Sun Archived 7 मार्च 2008 at Web Archive (Chapter 1 lecture notes on Solar Physics by Division of Theoretical Physics, Dept. of Physical Sciences, University of Helsinki).
↑ The 350 MK value is the maximum peak fusion fuel temperature in a thermonuclear weapon of the Teller–Ulam configuration (commonly known as a hydrogen bomb). Peak temperatures in Gadget-style fission bomb cores (commonly known as an atomic bomb) are in the range of 50 to 100 MK. Citation: Nuclear Weapons Frequently Asked Questions, 3.2.5 Matter At High Temperatures. Link to relevant Web page. Archived 21 मई 2017 at Web Archive All referenced data was compiled from publicly available sources.
↑ Peak temperature for a bulk quantity of matter was achieved by a pulsed-power machine used in fusion physics experiments. The term bulk quantity draws a distinction from collisions in particle accelerators wherein high temperature applies only to the debris from two subatomic particles or nuclei at any given instant. The >2 GK temperature was achieved over a period of about ten nanoseconds during shot Z1137. In fact, the iron and manganese ions in the plasma averaged 3.58±0.41 GK (309±35 keV) for 3 ns (ns 112 through 115). Ion Viscous Heating in a Magnetohydrodynamically Unstable Z Pinch at Over साँचा:Val Kelvin Archived 19 अप्रैल 2012 at Web Archive, M. G. Haines et al., Physical Review Letters 96 (2006) 075003. Link to Sandia's news release. Archived 30 मई 2010 at Web Archive
↑ Core temperature of a high–mass (>8–11 solar masses) star after it leaves the main sequence on the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram and begins the alpha process (which lasts one day) of fusing silicon–28 into heavier elements in the following steps: sulfur–32 → argon–36 → calcium–40 → titanium–44 → chromium–48 → iron–52 → nickel–56. Within minutes of finishing the sequence, the star explodes as a Type II supernova. Citation: Stellar Evolution: The Life and Death of Our Luminous Neighbors (by Arthur Holland and Mark Williams of the University of Michigan). Link to Web site Archived 16 जनवरी 2009 at Web Archive. More informative links can be found here "Archived copy".[२], and here "Archived copy".[३], and a concise treatise on stars by NASA is here [४] Archived 18 जुलाई 2017 at Web Archive. "Archived copy".[५]
↑ Based on a computer model that predicted a peak internal temperature of 30 MeV (350 GK) during the merger of a binary neutron star system (which produces a gamma–ray burst). The neutron stars in the model were 1.2 and 1.6 solar masses respectively, were roughly 20 km in diameter, and were orbiting around their barycenter (common center of mass) at about 390 Hz during the last several milliseconds before they completely merged. The 350 GK portion was a small volume located at the pair's developing common core and varied from roughly 1 to 7 km across over a time span of around 5 ms. Imagine two city-sized objects of unimaginable density orbiting each other at the same frequency as the G4 musical note (the 28th white key on a piano). It's also noteworthy that at 350 GK, the average neutron has a vibrational speed of 30% the speed of light and a relativistic mass (m) 5% greater than its rest mass (m₀). Torus Formation in Neutron Star Mergers and Well-Localized Short Gamma-Ray Bursts Archived 23 अगस्त 2014 at Web Archive, R. Oechslin et al. of Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics. Archived 3 अप्रैल 2005 at Web Archive, arXiv:astro-ph/0507099 v2, 22 Feb. 2006. An html summary Archived 10 जनवरी 2018 at Web Archive.
↑ Results of research by Stefan Bathe using the PHENIX Archived 20 नवंबर 2008 at Web Archive detector on the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider Archived 3 मार्च 2016 at Web Archive at Brookhaven National Laboratory Archived 24 जून 2012 at Web Archive in Upton, New York, U.S.A. Bathe has studied gold-gold, deuteron-gold, and proton-proton collisions to test the theory of quantum chromodynamics, the theory of the strong force that holds atomic nuclei together. Link to news release. Archived 30 दिसंबर 2017 at Web Archive
↑ How do physicists study particles? Archived 11 अक्तूबर 2007 at Web Archive by CERN Archived 11 फ़रवरी 2013 at Web Archive.
↑ The Planck frequency equals साँचा:Val (which is the reciprocal of one Planck time). Photons at the Planck frequency have a wavelength of one Planck length. The Planck temperature of साँचा:Val equates to a calculated b /T = λ_max wavelength of साँचा:Val. However, the actual peak emittance wavelength quantizes to the Planck length of साँचा:Val.

[1] The cited emission wavelengths are for black bodies in equilibrium. CODATA 2006 recommended value of साँचा:Val used for Wien displacement law constant b.

[ltl-2] "World record in low temperatures".[१]

[recordcold-3] A temperature of 450 ±80 pK in a Bose–Einstein condensate (BEC) of sodium atoms was achieved in 2003 by researchers at MIT. Citation: Cooling Bose–Einstein Condensates Below 500 Picokelvin, A. E. Leanhardt et al., Science 301, 12 Sept. 2003, p. 1515. It's noteworthy that this record's peak emittance black-body wavelength of 6,400 kilometers is roughly the radius of Earth.

[4] The peak emittance wavelength of साँचा:Gaps m is a frequency of 103.456 MHz

[5] Measurement was made in 2002 and has an uncertainty of ±3 kelvin. A 1989 measurement Archived 11 फ़रवरी 2010 at Web Archive produced a value of 5,777.0±2.5 K. Citation: Overview of the Sun Archived 7 मार्च 2008 at Web Archive (Chapter 1 lecture notes on Solar Physics by Division of Theoretical Physics, Dept. of Physical Sciences, University of Helsinki).

[6] The 350 MK value is the maximum peak fusion fuel temperature in a thermonuclear weapon of the Teller–Ulam configuration (commonly known as a hydrogen bomb). Peak temperatures in Gadget-style fission bomb cores (commonly known as an atomic bomb) are in the range of 50 to 100 MK. Citation: Nuclear Weapons Frequently Asked Questions, 3.2.5 Matter At High Temperatures. Link to relevant Web page. Archived 21 मई 2017 at Web Archive All referenced data was compiled from publicly available sources.

[7] Peak temperature for a bulk quantity of matter was achieved by a pulsed-power machine used in fusion physics experiments. The term bulk quantity draws a distinction from collisions in particle accelerators wherein high temperature applies only to the debris from two subatomic particles or nuclei at any given instant. The >2 GK temperature was achieved over a period of about ten nanoseconds during shot Z1137. In fact, the iron and manganese ions in the plasma averaged 3.58±0.41 GK (309±35 keV) for 3 ns (ns 112 through 115). Ion Viscous Heating in a Magnetohydrodynamically Unstable Z Pinch at Over साँचा:Val Kelvin Archived 19 अप्रैल 2012 at Web Archive, M. G. Haines et al., Physical Review Letters 96 (2006) 075003. Link to Sandia's news release. Archived 30 मई 2010 at Web Archive

[8] Core temperature of a high–mass (>8–11 solar masses) star after it leaves the main sequence on the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram and begins the alpha process (which lasts one day) of fusing silicon–28 into heavier elements in the following steps: sulfur–32 → argon–36 → calcium–40 → titanium–44 → chromium–48 → iron–52 → nickel–56. Within minutes of finishing the sequence, the star explodes as a Type II supernova. Citation: Stellar Evolution: The Life and Death of Our Luminous Neighbors (by Arthur Holland and Mark Williams of the University of Michigan). Link to Web site Archived 16 जनवरी 2009 at Web Archive. More informative links can be found here "Archived copy".[२], and here "Archived copy".[३], and a concise treatise on stars by NASA is here [४] Archived 18 जुलाई 2017 at Web Archive. "Archived copy".[५]

[9] Based on a computer model that predicted a peak internal temperature of 30 MeV (350 GK) during the merger of a binary neutron star system (which produces a gamma–ray burst). The neutron stars in the model were 1.2 and 1.6 solar masses respectively, were roughly 20 km in diameter, and were orbiting around their barycenter (common center of mass) at about 390 Hz during the last several milliseconds before they completely merged. The 350 GK portion was a small volume located at the pair's developing common core and varied from roughly 1 to 7 km across over a time span of around 5 ms. Imagine two city-sized objects of unimaginable density orbiting each other at the same frequency as the G4 musical note (the 28th white key on a piano). It's also noteworthy that at 350 GK, the average neutron has a vibrational speed of 30% the speed of light and a relativistic mass (m) 5% greater than its rest mass (m₀). Torus Formation in Neutron Star Mergers and Well-Localized Short Gamma-Ray Bursts Archived 23 अगस्त 2014 at Web Archive, R. Oechslin et al. of Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics. Archived 3 अप्रैल 2005 at Web Archive, arXiv:astro-ph/0507099 v2, 22 Feb. 2006. An html summary Archived 10 जनवरी 2018 at Web Archive.

[10] Results of research by Stefan Bathe using the PHENIX Archived 20 नवंबर 2008 at Web Archive detector on the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider Archived 3 मार्च 2016 at Web Archive at Brookhaven National Laboratory Archived 24 जून 2012 at Web Archive in Upton, New York, U.S.A. Bathe has studied gold-gold, deuteron-gold, and proton-proton collisions to test the theory of quantum chromodynamics, the theory of the strong force that holds atomic nuclei together. Link to news release. Archived 30 दिसंबर 2017 at Web Archive

[11] How do physicists study particles? Archived 11 अक्तूबर 2007 at Web Archive by CERN Archived 11 फ़रवरी 2013 at Web Archive.

[12] The Planck frequency equals साँचा:Val (which is the reciprocal of one Planck time). Photons at the Planck frequency have a wavelength of one Planck length. The Planck temperature of साँचा:Val equates to a calculated b /T = λ_max wavelength of साँचा:Val. However, the actual peak emittance wavelength quantizes to the Planck length of साँचा:Val.

[१]

[२]

[३]

[४]

[५]

[६]

[७]

[८]

[९]

[१०]

[११]

[१२]